The concept of kufr (disbelief) in the Holy Quran, with its profound and multifaceted layers, constitutes one of the pivotal themes in scholarly and theological exegesis. This concept is elucidated not only as a doctrinal category but also as a social and cultural phenomenon, presented with unparalleled diversity and precision in numerous Quranic verses. This treatise, adopting a systematic and scientific approach, analyses the categories of kufr, the necessity of peaceful engagement with peoples and nations, and critiques rigid approaches within religion. Its aim is to provide a comprehensive framework for researchers and academic audiences that is applicable both in comparative theology and the sociology of religion. The structure of this work is meticulously arranged with precise subdivisions and meaningful headings, designed to present concepts coherently with rich semantic connections. Distinguished Persian metaphors and allegories have been employed to deepen and embellish the text, while preserving a scientific and academic tone.
The Holy Quran explicitly regards certain Christian beliefs as exemplifications of kufr. This clarity delineates the doctrinal boundaries of Islam and holds a special place in comparative theology.
لَقَدْ كَفَرَ الَّذِينَ قَالُوا إِنَّ اللَّهَ هُوَ الْمَسِيحُ ابْنُ مَرْيَمَ
Indeed, those who said, Allah is the Messiah, the son of Mary, have disbelieved. (Surah Al-Maidah, 5:72)
This verse, with unequivocal language, rejects the belief in the divinity of Christ and emphasises pure Islamic monotheism. The analysis of this verse holds considerable significance in theological studies and interreligious dialogue, as it highlights the fundamental difference between Islamic monotheism and Christian theology.
The Holy Quran introduces kufr in various forms: doctrinal, practical, gratitude-related, and prohibition-related. This diversity reflects the profound insight of the Quran in analysing the phenomenon of disbelief.
مَنْ كَفَرَ بِاللَّهِ مِنْ بَعْدِ إِيمَانِهِ
Whoever disbelieves in Allah after his belief... (Surah Aal Imran, 3:90)
Doctrinal kufr, as mentioned in this verse, refers to a conscious denial after faith. From the perspective of religious psychology, this type of kufr is examined as an intentional choice.
مَنْ شَكَرَ فَإِنَّمَا يَشْكُرُ لِنَفْسِهِ وَمَنْ كَفَرَ فَإِنَّ رَبِّي غَنِيٌّ كَرِيمٌ
Whoever is grateful, he is grateful for [the benefit of] himself; and whoever is ungrateful then indeed, my Lord is Free of need and Generous. (Surah An-Naml, 27:12)
Gratitude-related kufr, indicated in this verse, encompasses even believers and refers to ingratitude towards divine blessings. This type of kufr is studied in Islamic ethics and spiritual psychology as an obstacle to spiritual growth.
In circumstances of taqiyya, the expression of doctrinal kufr is permissible, provided the heart remains firmly in faith.
إِلَّا مَنْ أُكْرِهَ وَقَلْبُهُ مُطْمَئِنٌّ بِالْإِيمَانِ
Except for one who is forced [to renounce his religion] while his heart is secure in faith. (Surah An-Nahl, 16:106)
This exception illustrates the jurisprudential flexibility of Islam under duress and is examined in Islamic jurisprudence and theology as a basis for analysing the behaviour of believers in difficult conditions.
Disbelief entails psychological and social consequences, including deprivation and exclusion.
مَنْ كَفَرَ فَعَلَيْهِ كُفْرُهُ
Whoever disbelieves his disbelief is upon him. (Surah Fatir, 35:39)
This verse refers to the psychological and social repercussions of disbelief. Like a heavy shadow, kufr deprives the individual of the light of faith and plunges him into the darkness of deprivation.
The Holy Quran, by precisely elucidating the categories of kufr, from doctrinal to gratitude-related, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding this phenomenon. The clarity regarding Christian disbelief, the flexibility under conditions of taqiyya, and the emphasis on the consequences of kufr indicate the depth and comprehensiveness of this sacred book. This analysis will pave the way for advanced research in theology, religious psychology, and Quranic exegesis.
Islamic religion, emphasising peaceful interaction, provides a platform for coexistence with peoples and nations. This flexibility, like a flowing river, enables cultural synergy in a diverse society.
God created humans with variety and difference, which manifests divine wisdom in creation.
وَقَدْ خَلَقَكُمْ أَطْوَارًا
And He created you in stages. (Surah Nuh, 71:14)
This verse, like a mirror, reflects the diversity of creation and emphasises the necessity of accepting differences within human society. The analysis of this principle holds special importance in the philosophy of creation and Islamic anthropology.
The endeavour to homogenise individuals and societies under a single religious framework, like a narrow cage, disrupts social life. This closed approach impedes the flourishing of human diversity.
Even among believers, sectarian diversity and differences in emulation exist, rendering uniformity impossible. This diversity, like a rainbow in the sky of faith, reveals the beauty and richness of Islamic religion.
Lack of diversity in religion, akin to continuous consumption of a single dish, leads to religious nausea and diverts individuals towards deviation. This allegory serves as a warning emphasising the necessity of diversity in religious education.
Peaceful interaction with peoples and nations is rooted in divine wisdom of creation and human diversity. Critique of dogmatic approaches and emphasis on cultural flexibility present Islamic religion as a dynamic and adaptable system. These principles provide a framework for advanced research in religious sociology, cultural diplomacy, and religious studies.
Religious knowledge must acquaint students with the diversity of peoples, nations, and social phenomena to prevent intellectual closure. This awareness acts as a key unlocking the doors of understanding the world for scholars.
Religious knowledge must familiarise students with all social aspects, from theft to gambling, to cultivate aware and multifaceted scholars. This education, like fertile soil, provides a foundation for the growth of multidimensional scholars.
Scholars ignorant of social diversity are like physicians without clinical experience, unable to respond to societal needs. This critique highlights the necessity of practical experience in religious training.
Opposing the teaching of the details of evils due to fears of corruption is akin to depriving a physician of knowledge about diseases, thereby rendering scholars vulnerable to the charge of ignorance.
Saadis story concerning the education of women in a garden, akin to a mirror, reflects the perils of intellectual isolation. This narrative emphasises the necessity of confronting the realities of the world.
Religious knowledge necessitates a reassessment of educational methodologies in order to cultivate scholars who are cognizant, comprehensive, and familiar with social diversity. The critique of oversimplification and the emphasis on practical education pave the way for the development of effective scholars. This analysis provides a framework for advanced research in religious education and Islamic sociology.
The Holy Quran meticulously and in detail portrays idols with characteristics such as sound, call, and mention, demonstrating its profound awareness of idolatry.
Confrontation with idolatry, like a flame, ignites faith and guides disbelievers towards the celestial realm. This experience transforms scholars into ambassadors of faith.
In the culture of disbelievers, idols are akin to a treasury, possessing both material and spiritual worth and should not be regarded as insignificant. This viewpoint necessitates a cultural analysis of idolatry.
The term idol, whether in the sense of idolatry or the meaning of a small boot, requires an etymological analysis to clarify its precise meaning. This analysis, like a key, opens the doors to Quranic understanding.
The insight of the Holy Quran in describing idols makes it a unique source for religious studies. Confronting idolatry not only strengthens faith but also aids in a deeper understanding of other cultures. This analysis serves as a guide for advanced research in religious studies and Quranic linguistics.
The religious scholar, akin to a skilled physician, must treat the intellectual and spiritual maladies of society rather than merely interacting with righteous individuals.
The religious scholar, aware of all evil and disbelief, can remain pure and healthy, like a physician wearing gloves, and assist in the reform of others.
The capacity for sin, which exists in humans but not in angels, is like a jewel, a perfection that preserves the scholar from contamination.
Educational limitations, such as the imposition of a uniform dress code, act as chains, hindering diversity and creativity, and are incompatible with the spirit of religion.
Parents and educational institutions should refrain from enforcing specific dress codes and, instead, prevent flashy and frivolous attire. This freedom, like a wing, enables individuals to soar in the sky of creativity.
The religious scholar, as a social physician, with awareness and flexibility, can guide society towards intellectual and spiritual health. The critique of educational limitations and the emphasis on freedom pave the way for nurturing a dynamic and creative generation.
The approach towards disbelievers should be diverse: kindness to some, argumentation with others, and severity with yet others.
Ashiddau ala al-kuffar
Severe against the disbelievers. (Surah Al-Fath, Verse 29)
This verse indicates the necessity of severity towards certain disbelievers; however, such severity must be exercised with wisdom and within specific circumstances.
The Holy Quran rejects compelling disbelievers to faith.
Lasta alayhim bimusaytir
You have no control over them. (Surah Yusuf, Verse 88)
This principle, like a torch, clarifies the freedom of belief in Islam.
The Holy Quran leaves the possibility of repentance from disbelief open until the moment of death.
Inna alladhina kafaru wa matu wahum kuffar
Those who disbelieved and died while they were disbelievers. (Surah Al-Baqarah, Verse 12)
This verse, like a window, reveals hope in divine mercy.
To confront disbelief, the principles of atheism must be analysed from the disbelievers perspective, not solely based on verses and traditions.
Unnecessary severity, such as unwarranted inspections, acts like a harsh wind, driving people away from religion.
Confronting disbelief requires wisdom, diversity, and flexibility. The Holy Quran, by emphasising freedom of belief, hope for return, and scientific dialogue, facilitates constructive interaction with disbelievers.
The Holy Quran, by precisely defining disbelief and describing its diversity, offers a comprehensive framework for understanding this phenomenon. This celestial book, while explicitly acknowledging the disbelief of the Christians, stresses the necessity of peaceful interaction with peoples and nations. The critique of dogmatic approaches, the necessity of practical education in religious knowledge, and the role of the scholar as a social physician are among the key principles of this analysis. The Qurans insight in describing idols and disbelievers makes it an unparalleled source in religious studies. This work, by providing a systematic framework, will pave the way for advanced research in theology, religious sociology, spiritual psychology, and philosophy of religion.
Supervised by Sadegh Khademi
